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Matsya Mahajanapada which comprises of Jaipur, Alwar, and Bharatpur
2) Saurasena Mahajanapada which comprises Alwar Bharatpur.
3) Kuru Mahajanapada which comprises of northern Alwar region.

Megasthenes, the ancient Greek historian, diplomat, Indian ethnographer, and explorer was a Greek ambassador who came during Bindusara reign. The other ambassadors are Deimachus (as ambassador to Bindusara), and Dionysius, (as ambassador to Ashoka).

the other names of Asoka are Devanam, Piyadasi, and Ashokavardhan (Buddhist manuscript)

Brihadratha Maurya was the last ruler of the Maurya Empire. He ruled from c. 187 – c. 180 BCE.

1) in charge of the collection of revenue from various parts of the kingdom

2) Looked after the income and expenditure

3) Supervised the works of the akshapataladhyaksha (Accountant General).

Sources of revenue are from cities, land, mines, forests, roads, tolls, fines licenses, manufactured products

Arthashastra is Kautilya’s book. It is about statecraft, economic policy, and military strategy. This book is written in Sanskrit.

During the Shunga Empire Patanjali happened. The shunga was the ancient Indian dynasty from Magadha from around 187 to 78 BCE. The dynasty was established by Pushyamitra Shunga.

Sathavahana is one of the greatest dynasties that ruled early India. There are about 30 kings ruled more than 4 centuries.Sathakarni I was a great king in the early ages of the dynasty. He tried to expand his kingdom and conquered Malawa kingdom. He also battled great Kharavela (Kalinga king) and defeated him, with this, the kingdom expanded to east.

Harisena was a 4th-century Sanskrit poet, and government minister who wrote “Allahabad Prasasti”. He was an important figure in the court of the Gupta emperor, Samudragupta.

Harsha is widely believed to be the author of three Sanskrit plays Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyadarsika.

Buddhism was followed by Pala dynasty. The Buddhist scholars from the Pala empire traveled from Bengal to other regions to spread Buddhism.

The Mahajanapadas were monarchical or republican in character. The Buddhist literature, Anguttara Nikaya lists the sixteen mahajanapadas given as –

1) Kasi,

2) Kosala,

3) Anga,

4) Magadha,

5) Vajji or Vriji,

6) Malla,

7) Chedi or Cheti,

8) Vamsa or Vatsa,

9) Kuru,

10) Panchala,

11) Machcha or Matsya,

12) Surasena,

13) Assaka or Ashmaka ,

14) Avanti,

15) Gandhara

16) Kamboja.

The word Dhamma is the Prakrit form of the Sanskrit word Dharma. Dhamma is a set of edicts that shaped a policy of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka Maurya. Asoka Maurya succeeded to the Mauryan throne in modern-day India around 268 to 232 BC. His policy of Dhamma has been discussed by intellectuals. Dharma is related to generalize norms of social behavior and activities.

Samudragupta took the Gupta dynasty from its unimportant position to its heights. He ascended the throne about 335 A.D. The Allahabad Pillar Inscription is the most important source which throws a light upon the history of Samudragupta. Allahabad Pillar Inscription discloses that Samudragupta defeated the union of twelve kings in a battle and maintained his supremacy. Dr. R.C. Majumdar has said that “Brilliant both as general and statesman. Samudragupta also possessed many qualities of head and heart better suited to a life of peaceful pursuits”.

1) Samudragupta had great affection for art literature and learning.

2) He composed many poems in Sanskrit and received the title of Kaviraj (the King of the poets).

3) Many renowned scholars decorated his court and improved prestige and distinction.

4) Harisena, the writer of the Allahabad inscription, was the chief personality of his court.

5) He was also a man of musical arts. (Some of his coins in his time show him seated on the couch and playing a Vina or lute as a musician).

6) His court poets have celebrated his intellect, poetic skill and ability in music.

7) Samudragupta was also a philosopher.

8) He is described as one who wanted to go deep into the ‘tattva’ ( wisdom) of the

9) He was also a patron of Buddhist philosopher and author Vasubandhu

10) He studied the internal philosophy of Buddhism under the guidance of that learned man.

11) Samudragupta being a conformist Hindu and supporter of the Brahmanical system was open-minded to all other religions.

12) He permitted the king of Ceylon to build a Buddhist monastery at Bodh Gaya for the advantage of the Buddhist monks.

13) He was very generous and sympathetic to the poor.

14) He was surrounded by a galaxy of poets and scholars whose services were occupied in the process of the creation of sacred literature.

15) Dr. V.A. Smith remarks “Samudragupta was a man of exceptional personal capacity and usually varied gifts”.

16) The height of ancient technical skill is seen in the coins, and the art of coinage exhibits the prosperity of the empire.

17) Samudragupta was a prominent character and guided a new era an era of cultural prosperity in ancient India.

Rashtrakuta was a royal dynasty which ruled the Indian subcontinent between the 6^th and 10^th centuries. The sources for Rashtrakuta history include medieval inscriptions, ancient literature in the Pali language. The major features of Rashtrakuta dynasty are:

1) The Rashtrakuta economy was based on its natural and agricultural production, revenues and money gained from territory conquests.

2) The kingdom was divided into Mandala or Rashtras (provinces). A Rashtra was ruled by a Rashtrapathi (emperor)

3) The Rashtrakuta army consisted of large groups of infantry, horsemen, and elephants.

4) The king determined the tax levels based on need and circumstances in the kingdom.

5) The Rashtrakuta kings maintained the popular religions and the traditional spirit of religious tolerance.

6) The society consisted of four basic castes of Brahmins, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Sudras.

7) Kannada became more prominent as a literary language with its script and literature and the Kannada language made remarkable growth, dignity, and productivity.

8) The Rashtrakutas also contributed to the architectural heritage of the Deccan.

9) The Rashtrakuta reign was from 753 to 982

10) Dantidurga (735-982) was the first king. Indra IV(973 – 982) followed by Tailapa II(Western Chalukyas) (973-997) ended the period.

The administration of Chola dynasty was monarchical in character where the king was the controller of the administration and all executive legislative and military powers rested with him. The features are:

1) The Chola empire known as Rajyam or Rastrayam was divided into a number of provinces or Mandalam.

2) the Chola administration system was very well organized and efficient.

3) A council of ministers and other high officials advised the king for the administration of Chola Empire.

4) The princes of Chola dynasty were connected with the ruling king and were actively employed in war and peace.

5) The king was alone responsible for the efficient administration of the Chola Empire.

6) There was a body of executive officers in the immediate and stable attendance of the king.

7) Each department was represented by a group of officers.

8) a ministerial council consisted of organized administrative staff and the heads of the departments

9) Royal towns also contributed to the efficiency of the Chola administration and the officers were paid by land assignments..

10) The verbal orders were drafted by the Royal or Private Secretary known as Vidaiyadhikari.

11) The local governors inspected the orders before they were registered and sent to Departments of Archives for preservation.

12) The most important Mandalams were placed under the charges of the Viceroys who were generally the Princes of the royal blood or of noble families.

13) The provinces or Mandalams were subdivided into a number of divisions known as Kottams or Valanadus.

14) The next administrative subdivisions of Cholas were the districts (Nadus). Each Nadu consisted of a number of autonomous villages, unions or groups of villages, playing a very important part in the Chola administration system.

15) The assembly of the people of the whole Mandalam was in connection with the cutback of certain taxes on land under its authority.

The Pallava dynasty existed from 275 CE to 897 CE. It was a South Indian dynasty. They rose to power after the fall of the Satavahana dynasty. Mahendravarman I is considered as the greatest ruler of Pallava dynasty. They extended their territories to the Northern part of Andhra. In the South, the Pallava Kingdom extended to river Kaveri.

All early Pallava royal inscriptions were either in Sanskrit or Prakrit. They were the official languages of the dynasty. The official scripts were Pallava and later Grantha. Pallavas were followers of Hinduism. Among the activities of the Pallava architecture are the rock-cut temples at Mahabalipuram. The Pallavas, made magnificent sculptures and temples, time-honored the foundations of medieval South Indian architecture.

Kanishka was an emperor of the Kushan dynasty in the second century (c. 127–150 CE). Kanishka was the descendant of Kujula Kadphises – (founder of the Kushan empire) . Kanishka came to rule an empire in Bactria extending from Turfan in the Tarim Basin to Pataliputra on the Gangetic plain. The main capital of his empire was located at Puruṣapura in Gandhara. Kanishka I is called Kanishka the Great. He is famous for his military, political, and spiritual achievements. His major contributions are:

1) Kaniska added many territories to his kingdom by his conquests. Kushana empire included Afghanistan, a large part of Sindh, the Punjab portions of Parthia and Bactria.

2) Kaniska occupied many interior parts of the Gangetic valley and occupied Magadha.

3) Kaniska came in contact with the great Buddhist monk Asvaghosha and followed Buddhism.

4) He was a true representative of the liberal spirit of the Indian culture.

5) It was during his time the Sanskrit language dealt with both religious and non-religious subjects

6) Asvaghosa (who wrote Buddhacharita which is considered as the epic of Buddhism) was the most illustrious figure of his court.

7) During the reign of Kaniska trade and commerce grew encouragingly.

8) Kanisha was a military genius, and thus he proved himself to be an invincible conqueror.

9) The Gandhara School of Art represented a mixed culture, and it was the manifestation of Kanishka

The Mahajanapada period in Rajasthan was from 600 BCE to 300 BCE. The term Mahajanapada means “foothold of a tribe”. There were 16 mahajanpadas during 600 BC to 300 B.C.

Features of Janapadas

1) Vedic texts explain that Aryan tribes were known as the Janas. Janas was the largest social units.

2) The term janapada composed of janas means “people” or “subject” and pada “foot”.

3) By sixth century B.C, Panini mentions about 22 different janapadas. Magadha, Avanti, Kosala, and Vatsa were considered very important.

4) Janapada's were the most primitive gathering places of men, merchants, artisans, and craftsmen parallel to marketplace or town bordered by hamlets and villages.

5) Later, Janapadas became the major realms republics or kingdoms of Vedic India.

6) A janapadin was the ruler of a janapada.

7) Ancient Sanskrit texts like Ashtadhyayi, Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas refer to many Janapadas of ancient times.

8) The Indian subcontinent was divided into the Janapadas with clear separated boundaries.

9) The vedic literature describes the nine janapadas besides such people as the Andhras, Pulindas, Sabaras and Pundaras.

Mahajanapadas

With the development of large territorial states, janpadas became more powerful and turned into mahajanpadas. The Sixth century BC onwards, the widespread use of iron in eastern UP and western Bihar created conditions for the formation of large territorial states. There were 16 mahajanpadas during 600 BC to 300 B.C. Early Buddhist and Jain literature have descriptions about them. Those were as follows:

These are the details about the mahajanapadas. These were well-built political bodies with authority. They were spheres of the republic in ancient India.

The Maurya Empire was an Iron Age power in ancient India ruled by the Maurya Dynasty. It had its origins in the Magadha kingdom. The period was from 322 BCE - 185 BCE. It was one of the world's largest empires in its time and the largest ever in the Indian subcontinent. Chandragupta Maurya founded the Empire after overthrowing the Nanda Dynasty. He began hastily expanding his power westward across central and western India.

Chandragupta Maurya made Pataliputra as the imperial capital. He split the empire into four provinces in need of organizational and ruling purposes. This combination of the strong central government and the huge military force was an important part of the Mauryan dynasty.

Administration in Mauryan period

1) The Mauryan empire was an efficient and highly organized autocracy with a reputed army and civil service.

2) The history of Mauryan empire was taken up by conquest. The empire had a huge standing army of cavalry, infantry and war elephants.

3) The trade and economy of the Mauryan dynasty were one of their most influential achievements.

4) The Empire was divided into four provinces, with the imperial capital at Pataliputra.

5) the names of the four provincial capitals are Tosali (in the east), Ujjain (in the west), Suvarnagiri (in the south), and Taxila (in the north).

6) The head of the provincial administration was the Kumara (royal prince), was the king's representative.

7) The kumara was assisted by Mahamatyas and council of ministers.

8) There was a group called Mantriparishad (Council of Ministers).

9) The administration was similar to Kautilya in the Arthashastra: (Arthashastra is a sophisticated civil service governed everything from municipal hygiene to international trade.)

10) The empire wielded a military which was huge. It consisted of :

• 600,000 infantry,

• 30,000 cavalry,

• 8,000 chariots and

• 9,000 war elephants besides followers and attendants

11) A vast spying system collected intelligence for both internal and external security purposes.

Society during Mauryan period

The society was comprised of seven castes, namely −

1) Philosophers,

2) Farmers,

3) Soldiers,

4) Herdsmen,

5) Artisans,

6) Magistrates, and

7) Councilors

Other features of Mauryan society are:

• Chaturvarna system continued to govern the society.

• The craftsmen enjoyed a high place in the society.

• Teaching continued to be the main job of the Brahmans.

• Guilds provided the technical education, where pupils learnt the crafts from the early age.

• The joint family system existed.

• The system of dowry existed.

• The widows had given respect in the society.

• All stree-dhana (bride-gift and jewelry) was the property owned by women alone.

• Offenses against women were severely dealt with.

• Severe punishments were given to those who misbehaved with women.

• Buddhist monasteries were developed

• Taxila, Ujjayini, and Varanasi were famous educational centers.

• Slavery did not exist in India.

The economy of Mauryan kingdom

• Agriculture was the base of the economy.

• Forests were maintained and protected and the rest of the land was used for agriculture..

• A number of crops like rice, coarse grains (kodrava), sesame, pepper, and saffron, pulses, wheat, linseed, mustard, vegetable and fruits of various kinds and sugarcane were grown.

• There were many agricultural farms, cattle farms, dairy farms, etc.

• The irrigation system was well built. Water reservoirs and dams were built.

• There were strict rules and regulations in respect of agriculture, industry, commerce, animal husbandry, etc.

• Special measures were taken for economic development during this period.

• The extraordinary skill of craftsmen was another specialty.

• A huge dam was built on Sudarshana Lake near Girnar in Kathiawad.

• They had foreign trade with the western countries through land and sea with good security in trade-routes.

• The main items of trade were indigo, various medicinal substances, cotton, and silk.

• The trade was regulated by the state and license for trade had to be taken.

• The land tax was one-fourth to one-sixth of the produce.

• The toll tax was charged on all items, which were brought for sale in the market.

• All the workers, the craftsmen, herdsmen, traders, and farmers, all paid taxes.

• Those who could not pay the tax in cash or kind contributed in the form of labor.

• Sources of revenue were increased from the income of mines, forests, pasture lands, trade, forts, etc.

• The weaker section of society- children, and handicapped people were exempted from paying the taxes.

• Tax avoidance was considered a very serious crime

• The artisans and craftsmen were given special protection by the state and offenses against them were harshly punished.

• The main industries during this period were textile, mining, and metallurgy, ship-building, jewelry making, metal working, pot making, etc.

• The industries were prearranged in various guilds. Jesthaka was the chief of a guild.

• The guilds were powerful institutions. It gave craftsmen great support and security.

• The guilds settled the disputes of their members. A few guilds issued their own coins.

• The guilds also made donations to educational institutions and learned Brahmans.

Art and Architecture

• The main examples of Mauryan art and architecture are −

a) Remains of the royal palace and the city of Pataliputra;

b) Ashokan pillars and capitals;

c) Rock cut Chaitya caves in the Barabar and Nagarjuni hills;

d) Mauryan sculptures and terracotta figurines; etc.

• the famous city of Pataliputra (modern Patna) was stretched along the river Ganga in the form of a parallelogram. It was covered by a wooden wall and had 64 gates.

• The Mauryan wooden palace survived for about 700 years.

• The palace and also the wooden palisade had been shattered by the fire. The burnt wooden structure and ashes have been found from Kumrahar.

• Seven rock-cut caves in the Barabar and Nagarjuni hills were built during this period.

• Emperor Kharavela spent the first year in rebuilding the capital of Kalinga.

• Kharavela invaded the kingdom of Magadha in the 8^th and 12^th years of his reign.

• Art and architecture had developed substantially during the Mauryan period.

The Gupta Age has been described as the Golden Age of ancient India. The period was from the mid-to-late 3rd century CE to 590 CE. it covered much of the Indian subcontinent. The factors for the prominence of Gupta rule were:

1) a powerful imperial dynasty,

2) political harmony of the country,

3) inner peace and security,

4) strong but compassionate administration,

5) economic prosperity,

6) contact with the outside world, and

7) encouragement of culture.

Samudragupta was the greatest ruler of the Gupta Empire. His period was from 335/350-375 CE. He was the son of the Gupta emperor Chandragupta I and the Licchavi princess Kumaradevi. he greatly extended his dynasty's political power.

Samudragupta’s conquests and strategies

1) Samudragupta took up strategic plans for his conquests of the north and the south.

2) He decided to suppress the neighboring Kingdoms first before going for distant expeditions.

3) His conquest against Aryavarta was his first campaign.

4) He then dashed against Dakhinapatha and in the third phase he marched on the second Aryavarta War.

5) Samudragupta also invaded Atavika or Forest Kingdoms

6) He also recognized diplomatic relations with the states situated in the frontiers of the Gupta empire

7) He exchanged political negotiations with distant foreign powers.

8) In his first campaign in north India, Samudragupta defeated:

• Achyuta, the ruler of Ahichchhator (modern Ramnagar of Bareilly district),

• Nagasena the ruler of Padmavati (near Marwar) and

• Mathura.

9) He attained a secure position in the Ganga-Jamuna Valley

10) In the southern expedition, he encountered with twelve kings and defeated them, set them at autonomy and allowed them to rule as feudatory chiefs of the South.

11) This policy of Samudragupta is described in 3 ways:

• Digvijaya or defeating the enemy kings of the South,

• Grahana or getting the authority over the kingdoms and then

• Anugraha allowing them to rule their Kingdoms under his Suzerainty.

Samudragupta’s cultural contribution

1) Samudragupta had great affection for art literature and learning.

2) He was also a man of musical arts

3) Samudragupta was also a philosopher.

4) He was very generous and sympathetic to the poor.

5) He composed many poems in Sanskrit and earned the title of Kaviraj (the King of the poets).

6) Dr. V.A. Smith has rightly remarked Samudragupta was a man of brilliant personal capacity and usually varied gifts.

7) Many eminent scholars were there in his court and improved prestige and dignity.

8) Harisena the writer of the Allahabad inscription was an important personality of his court.

9) His court poets have adorned his polished intellect, poetic skill and proficiency in music.

10) He is described as one who wanted to go deep into the tattva or the wisdom of the Sastras to be worthy of the company of the wise men.

11) He was also a patron of Buddhist philosopher and author Vasubandhu and himself studied the inner philosophy of Buddhism under the guidance of that learned man.

12) Samudragupta was an orthodox Hindu and believer of the Brahmanical system was broad-minded to all other religions.

13) He permitted the king of Ceylon to build a Buddhist monastery at Boudh Gaya for the assistance of the Buddhist monks.

14) Dr. R.C. Majumdar has said that “Brilliant both as general and statesman.

15) Samudragupta also possessed many virtues of head and heart better suited to a life of peaceful pursuits”.

16) He congregated round himself a galaxy of poets and scholars whose services he engaged in the process of the creation of holy literature.

Thus Gupta period under the ruler Samudragupta made significant cultural and social achievements. It is still regarded as the vital period in Indian history.

The history of the southern part of India covers a span of over four thousand years. This region saw the rise and fall of a number of dynasties and empires. The period of the known history of the region begins with the Iron age (1200 BCE to 24 BCE) period. Until the 14th century CE. dynasties of Satavahana, Chola, Chera, Chalukya, Pallava, Rashtrakuta, Kakatiya and Hoysala were at their peak during various periods of history. The Pallavas, Cholas, and Pandyas shared the power in the Tamil Country. Cheras ruled Kerala and Chalukyas ruled Karnataka. The descriptions of the southern states are as follows:

1) PALLAVAS

1) During the reign of Pallavas, Kanchi became a great center of Brahmanical and Buddhist learning.

2) Many of the famous temples were built

3) Pallava artists from Kanchi helped to build great temples in Cambodia and Java.

2) CHALUKYAS

1) The Chalukyas came to power in Karnata or the Canarese speaking country in the 6^th century AD with Vatapi (present Badami) as capital.

2) The real creator of the dynasty was Pulikesin one who performed 'aswamedha yaga' to access to power.

3) Pulikesin II (609-642) consolidated his power in Maharastra and conquered nearly the whole of Deccan.

4) By 753 AD, Vikramaditya II, the Chalukya king was overthrown by Dandidurga and laid the basis for a new empire called Rastrakutas.

3) RASTRAKUTAS

1) The Rastrakutas Empire extended from south Gujarat, Malva, and Baghalkhand in the north to Tanjore to the south.

2) In 973 Tailia II, a descendent from the early Chalukyas overthrew the dynasty.

4) CHOLAS

1) By 850 AD, Cholas had risen to power and ruling the south Tamil Country from Tanjore.

2) Under Rajaraja I (985-1018) and his son Rajendra Chola I (1018-1048) Cholas conquered the whole of Tamil Country.

3) They went as far as the Ganges and asserted their power over Ceylon, Nicobar Islands, parts of the Malay Peninsula and the Indian Archipelago.

4) Rajendra Chola defeated Manipala one of Bengal.

5) He also conquered Chalukyas at Musangi.

6) The Pandyas annexed the southern part of the empire. In the country between the Godavari and the Ganges rose the empires of Kalinga and Orissa.

7) The Chola Empire declined after Rajendra Chola Kulathunga.

5) PANDYAS

1) Pandyas occupied the present Madurai and Thirunelveli District with part of old Travancore.

2) They excelled in trade and learning.

3) A Pandya king sent a representative to the Roman Emperor Augustus in the first century BC.

4) The Pandya kingdom rose to fame during the 13th century.

5) Kafur conquered the kingdom in the early 14^th century.

6) Vijayanagara Empire absorbed it after a brief period.

7) In 1328 Hoysala Empire was conquered by Mohamed Bin Tughluq.

8) After the withdrawal of Tughluq, Vijayanagar Empire and Bahmani Sultanate were founded in the south.

The states in south India were strong with its own characteristics. Of them, the Cholas and the Chalukyas were important. They have their story of triumph, legacy, and invasions.